Thanks to Lex Pelger and his wonderful newsletter.
A total of 262 studies were included, with 144 retrieved from indexed databases and 118 from alternative methods.
Abstract
Introduction:
Cannabis sativa L. is an annual herbaceous plant with a long history of multipurpose use, including food, textile, and medicinal applications. The progressive legalization in several countries has significantly increased its large-scale cultivation, consequently generating a substantial amount of biomass waste. This scenario calls for innovative and sustainable strategies to valorize Cannabis residues, aiming at promoting the circular economy and technological innovation.
Materials and Methods:
An integrative review was conducted following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. Systematic searches were performed in SCOPUS, PubMed, and SciELO, complemented by specialized platforms such as CANNUSE and CONSENSUS. Peer-reviewed empirical studies were included if they addressed the utilization, reutilization, or recycling of C. sativa by-products or residues for the development of industrial products, processes, or inputs. The analysis considered thematic and commercial domains, geographic origin, and biomass type.
Results:
A total of 262 studies were included, with 144 retrieved from indexed databases and 118 from alternative methods. The most commonly explored residues were stems (48.2%), seeds (21.0%), and postextraction residuum (9.7%). The majority of applications were related to technology and innovation (37.5%) and industrial sectors (36.9%). A total of 328 technologies were identified, highlighting applications such as textile fibers, bioplastics, biofuels, functional foods, adsorbents, and natural cosmetics. Italy, China, and the United States led in scientific production. Leaves (7.0%) and roots (0.9%) were significantly underexplored despite their bioactive potential.
Discussion:
The findings demonstrate a growing global interest in the valorization of C. sativa residues, with promising applications in bioeconomy, regenerative agriculture, phytoremediation, and energy transition. The integration of traditional knowledge and green technologies is a key strategy to enhance sustainability and socioterritorial inclusion. Nonetheless, regulatory gaps and a lack of robust clinical and toxicological studies limit the use of by-products in food and feed chains.
Conclusion:
The residual biomass of C. sativa holds high technological, environmental, and economic value. Strategic valorization demands regulatory advancement, the development of green technologies, and the strengthening of multidisciplinary research. Industrial Cannabis emerges as a driver of ecological, social, and economic transformation toward sustainable circular production systems.
Introduction
Cannabis sativa L. (family Cannabaceae) is an annual herbaceous plant historically utilized by diverse cultures as a source of food, fiber, and medicine. The earliest record of Cannabis use dates back to non-medicinal purposes in the pyramids of Memphis, the ancient capital of Egypt, during the end of the Fifth Dynasty (circa 2350 BCE), where a stone inscription reads: “The King tied the hemp ropes.”1–4 The use of the plant for manufacturing ropes and other utilitarian tools was widespread. Although its medicinal applications were occasionally mentioned, such references are rare in ancient medical papyri, underscoring the plant’s multifunctionality.1,2,5
Throughout history, species of the genus Cannabis have been widely acknowledged for their remarkable versatility, playing a pivotal role in both therapeutic and industrial contexts. However, cultural and legal perceptions surrounding Cannabis have fluctuated over time, oscillating between periods of recognition and prohibition.6,7
Since the 1920s, Cannabis has been prohibited in most Western countries. Nonetheless, recent decades have witnessed shifts in legislation across parts of Europe and, more recently, the Americas. Despite these changes, stigma rooted in prohibitionist narratives still persists, particularly in association with the plant’s vernacular names.8,9
The legal reform in multiple countries has prompted renewed scientific and ethnopharmacological assessments of Cannabis, emphasizing its intrinsic value for medicinal and industrial applications. For instance, in Canada, the legalization and regulation of both recreational and medicinal Cannabis have led to a notable expansion in cultivation and significant economic, social, and public health impacts.10,11
This transition is grounded in contemporary paradigms of sustainability and industrial efficiency. Among its most promising dimensions is the strategic valorization of vegetal residues derived from Cannabis cultivation.12,13 These residues, comprising leaves, stems, roots, and seeds, are often discarded, although recent ethnobotanical reports highlight their use as pharmacological agents, stimulating the search for bioactive compounds in these parts.14–16 Despite this, few systematic frameworks have consolidated data on the reuse and recycling of Cannabis residues.
Recycling, utilization (i.e., value-adding use), and reutilization (i.e., creative repurposing) may lead to the development of a wide array of products with varied technological complexity, encouraging a holistic and sustainable approach to Cannabis usage. Generally, “utilization” refers to the efficient use of resources, often encompassing both recycling and reutilization.17 “Reutilization” denotes the creative reuse of materials without industrial transformation (e.g., repurposing containers), whereas “recycling” involves the industrial processing of materials into new products and contributes to waste reduction.18–22
Often, residues are prematurely labeled as waste. At what stage of the production chain can Cannabis residues be considered waste? When does repurposing begin, and which by-products and tools are applicable to this species? Addressing such questions is key to fostering an integrated perspective on sustainability, as Cannabis is increasingly embedded within diverse production systems and methodologies.
This integrated approach emphasizes the valorization of every plant part, aligning with contemporary demands for more conscious and responsible production practices.23–25 It promotes environmental preservation, economic efficiency, technological innovation, and a commitment to social and ecological responsibility.26–29
Understanding how the valorization of Cannabis-derived vegetal residues may lead to novel applications, from biofuels to pharmaceutical and cosmetic products, is imperative. In light of this, the present study investigates the approaches and techniques currently being tested to enable recycling, utilization, and reutilization of Cannabis production residues, with a focus on efficient, sustainable, and ecologically sound use.
Methodology
This integrative review was conducted to address the following research question: “What types of products can be generated through the utilization, reutilization, or recycling of production residues and various anatomical parts of the plant Cannabis sativa?” The primary aim was to systematically map and critically analyze existing alternatives for the processing and repurposing of discarded plant biomass, including leaves, stems, roots, seeds, and other by-products.
Study design and data collection
The review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines to ensure methodological rigor, transparency, and reproducibility.30 The PRISMA flowchart (Fig. 1) summarizes the search and selection process. Data collection was conducted from August 4 to 8, 2024, using structured queries across SCOPUS, PubMed, and SciELO databases. In addition, supplementary analyses were performed using specialized platforms such as CANNUSE and CONSENSUS, as well as citation mining of relevant review articles, given their extensive coverage of peer-reviewed literature in biomedical and industrial fields. Controlled keywords were combined using Boolean operators (AND, OR), including: “Cannabis,” “reuse,” “reutilization,” “utilization,” “recycling,” “recovery,” “biomass,” “Cannabis-derived,” “by-products,” “industrial,” and “waste.”
Read more
